Ionizing Energy in Food Processing and Pest Control: I. Wholesomeness of Food Treated With Ionizing Energy
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.62300/wnnvcc19Keywords:
Food irradiation, Ionizing energy, Food safety, Food preservation, Pest controlAbstract
This report evaluates the wholesomeness of foods treated with ionizing energy when used for food processing and pest control. It reviews the physical nature of ionizing radiation, sources of natural and induced radiation exposure, and the mechanisms by which ionizing energy interacts with food components and microorganisms. The assessment examines the toxicological, microbiological, and nutritional safety of irradiated foods, including the formation and significance of radiolytic products. Evidence from animal feeding studies, human consumption data, and government and international evaluations is reviewed to determine whether irradiation introduces health risks or compromises food quality. The report also considers irradiation alongside conventional food processing and preservation methods, and its effectiveness in controlling foodborne pathogens and insect pests. Based on the available scientific data and regulatory reviews at the time of publication, the task force concludes that foods irradiated under approved conditions are wholesome and safe for human consumption and that ionizing energy is a viable and effective food processing technology when properly applied.
Downloads
References
American Medical Association. 1984. Food irradiation as a process, not an additive. Resolution 128 (A‑84). American Medical Association House of Delegates. Adopted June 20, 1984.
Anellis, A., Berkowitz, D., Jarboe, C., and El‑Bisi, H. M. 1967. Radiation sterilization of prototype military food. II. Cured ham. Appl. Microbiol. 15(1):166‑177.
Anellis, A., Rowley, D. B., and Ross, E. W., Jr. 1979. Microbiological safety of radappertized beef. J. Food Protection 42(12):927‑932.
Anonymous. 1977. Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation. United Nations Scientific Committee on Effects of Atomic Radiation. 1977. Report to the General Assembly, With Annexes. United Nations Publication. Sales No. 3.77.IX.I. United Nations, New York.
Anonymous. 1980. The Effects on Populations of Exposure to Low Levels of Radiation: 1980. Report of the Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations, Division of Medical Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
Anonymous. 1986. Study on safety evaluation of diet consisting of 35 kinds of irradiated foods for human consumption. FAO/IAEA Seminar for Asia and the Pacific on the Practical Application of Food Irradiation. International Atomic Energy Agency and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Seminar held April 7‑11, 1986, in Shanghai, China. (In press)
Banes, D. 1968. In Status of the Food Irradiation Program. Hearings before the Subcommittee on Research, Development, and Radiation of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, Congress of the United States, July 18 and 30, 1968, p. 104. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Barna, J. 1979. Compilation of bioassay data on the wholesomeness of irradiated food items. Acta Alimentaria 8(3):205‑315. (In English)
Basson, R. A. 1983. Recent advances in radiation chemistry of vitamins. Pp. 189‑201. In P. S. Elias and A. J. Cohen (Eds.). Recent Advances in Food Irradiation. Elsevier Biomedical Press, Amsterdam.
Becker, R. L. 1979. A Determination of the Radioactivity Induced in Foods as a Result of Irradiation by Electrons of Energy Between 10 and 16 MeV. Contract No. DAAK60‑78‑R‑0007. U.S. Army Natick Research and Development Command, Natick, Mass.
Behere, A. G., Sharma, A., Padwal‑Desai, S. R., and Nadkarni, G. B. 1978. Production of aflatoxin during storage of gamma‑irradiated wheat. J. Food Sci. 48:1102‑1103.
Bergelson, L. D., Vaver, V. A., and Prokazova, N. W. 1964. New types of neutral lipids. Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 157(1):122‑124.
Besancenez, J., Christopher, J. P., Cuca, G. C., Dahlgren, R. R., Israelson, E. L., Miranti, R. A., Monti, K. L., Reutzel, L. F., Ronnie, D. C., Ruecker, F. A., Scheidt, A. B., Thomson, G. M., and Troup, C. M. 1983. Irradiation Sterilized Chicken Meat: A Chronic Toxicity and Reproductive Performance Study in Beagle Dogs. Vols. 1‑9. Raltech Scientific Services, St. Louis, Mo. Available from National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va. PB84‑187020.
Bhaskaram, C., and Sadasivan, G. 1976. Effects of feeding irradiated wheat to malnourished children. Internat. J. Radiat. Biol. 27:93; and Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 28:130‑135 (1975).
Bierman, E. L., Plough, I. C., Sellars, J. H., McGary, V. E., Nevels, E. M., Baker, E. M., Harding, R. S., Richmond, J., and Bowman, B. O. 1958. Short‑Term Human Feeding Studies of Foods Sterilized by Gamma Radiation and Stored at Room Temperature. Report No. 224, July 1, 1958. U.S. Army Medical Nutrition Laboratory, Fitzsimons Army Hospital, Denver, Colo.
Black, C. M., Dahlgren, R. R., Israelson, E. L., Jensen, J., Luippold, H. E., Palmer, T. E., and Ronning, D. C. 1981a. Study Report: Heritable Translocation Test in Mice. Raltech Scientific Services, St. Louis, Mo. NTIS PB84‑187053.
Black, C. M., Dahlgren, R. R., Israelson, E. L., Jansen, R. A., Miranti, R. A., Monti, K. L., Reutzel, L. F., Ronning, D. C., and Troup, C. M. 1981b. Final Report: Dominant Lethal Study. Raltech Scientific Services, St. Louis, Mo. NTIS PB84‑187053.
Bregvadze, V. D., and Bokeriya, N. M. 1971. Effect of γ‑irradiation on amino acid composition of wines. Tr. Gruz. Nauch‑Issled. Inst. Pishch Prom. 4:90‑96.
Bronnikova, I. A., and Okuneva, L. A. 1972. Hygienic evaluation of rations with a predominance of products of plant origin subjected to gamma irradiation. Voprosy Pitaniya 31(4):74.
Brooke, R. O., Ravesi, E. M., Gadbois, D. F., and Steinberg, M. A. 1964. Preservation of fresh unfrozen fishery products by low‑level radiation. III. Effects of radiation pasteurization on amino acids and vitamins in clams. Food Technol. 18:1060‑1064.
Brooke, R. O., Ravesi, E. M., Gadbois, D. F., and Steinberg, M. A. 1966. Preservation of fresh unfrozen fishery products by low‑level irradiation. V. Effects on amino acids and vitamins in haddock fillets. Food Technol. 20:1479‑1482.
Brunetti, A., Frattoli, V., Grecar, W., Hutton, D., Takeguchi, C., and Valcovic, L. 1980. FDA requirements for irradiated meats and other irradiated foods. Proceedings of the International Meat Research Congress 1:185. American Meat Science Association, Chicago.
Brynjolfsson, A. 1978. The high dose and low dose food irradiation programmes in the United States of America. Food Preservation by Irradiation 1:15‑27. IAEA STI/PUB/470.
Brynjolfsson, A. 1985. Wholesomeness of irradiated foods: A review. J. Food Safety 7(2):107‑126.
CAC. 1976. Action on Implementing Recommendations of the 1976 Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Expert Committee on Wholesomeness of Irradiated Food. Codex Alimentarius Commission, Rome, Italy.
CAC. 1983a. Final Action on Average Dose of 10 kGy Recommended by the 1980 Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Expert Committee on Wholesomeness of Irradiated Food. Codex Alimentarius Commission, Rome, Italy.
CAC. 1983b. The Microbial Safety of Irradiated Food. Codex Alimentarius Commission, CX/FH83/9. Rome, Italy.
CAC. 1984. Codex General Standards for Irradiated Foods and Recommended International Code of Practice for the Operation of Radiation Facilities Used for the Treatment of Food. CAC/VO4XV – Ed. 1. Codex Alimentarius Commission, Rome, Italy.
Chauhan, P. S., Aravindakshan, M., Kumar, N. S., Subba Rao, V., Aiyar, A. S., and Sundaram, K. 1977. Evaluation of freshly irradiated wheat for dominant lethal mutations in Wistar rats. Toxicology 7:85–97.
Chipault, J. R. 1962. High‑energy irradiation. Pp. 151–169. In H. W. Schultz (Ed.). Symposium on Foods: Lipids and Their Oxidation. AVI Publishing Co., Westport, Conn.
Christopher, J. P., Cuca, G. C., Dahlgren, R. R., Israelson, E. L., and Lepp, R. S. 1979. Final Report: Rat Teratology Study. Raltech Scientific Services, St. Louis, Mo. Available from National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va. PB84‑187046.
Coats, M. E., Fuller, R., Harrison, G. F., Lev, M., and Suffolk, S. F. 1963. A comparison of the growth of chicks in the Gustafson germ‑free apparatus and in a conventional environment with and without dietary supplements of penicillin. Brit. J. Nutr. 17:141–150.
Comptroller General of the United States. 1978. The Department of the Army’s Food Radiation Program – Is It Worth Continuing? Report No. PSAD‑73‑146, Sept. 29, 1978. United States General Accounting Office.
Coon, J. M., and Josephson, E. S. 1984. Is Irradiation a Food Additive? COMMENTS from CAST 1984‑3.
Coon, J. M., Josephson, E. S., and Wierbicki, E. 1985a. Are we irrational about irradiation? Science of Food and Agriculture 3(2):2–9.
Coon, J. M., Josephson, E. S., and Wierbicki, E. 1985b. Food irradiation. COMMENTS from CAST 1985‑2.
Dahlgren, R. R., Israelson, E. L., Marshall, D. B., Miranti, R. A., Monti, K. L., Prlain, L. A., Reutzel, L. F., Ronning, D. C., and Thomson, G. M. 1977. Final Report: Mouse Teratology Study. Raltech Scientific Services, St. Louis, Mo. Available from National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va. PB84‑187046.
Dahlgren, R. R., Israelson, E. L., Marshall, D. B., Miranti, R. A., Monti, K. L., Prlain, L. A., Reutzel, L. F., Ronning, D. C., and Thomson, G. M. 1978. Final Report: Hamster Teratology Study. Raltech Scientific Services, St. Louis, Mo. Available from National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va. PB84‑187046.
Dahlgren, R. R., Israelson, E. L., Marshall, D. B., Miranti, R. A., Reutzel, L. F., Ronning, D. C., and Troup, C. M. 1982. Irradiation Sterilized Chicken: A Feeding Study in Rats. Raltech Scientific Services, St. Louis, Mo. Available from National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va. PB84‑187038.
Dai Yin. 1986. An introduction of safety evaluation on irradiated foods in China. FAO/IAEA Seminar for Asia and the Pacific on the Practical Application of Food Irradiation. International Atomic Energy Agency and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Seminar held April 7–11, 1986, in Shanghai, China. (In press)
de Groot, A. P., van der Mijll Dekker, L. P., Slump, P., Vos, H. J., and Willems, J. J. L. 1972. Composition and Nutritive Value of Radiation‑Pasteurized Chicken. Report No. R3787, Central Institute for Nutrition and Food Research (TNO), Zeist, The Netherlands.
deKnecht‑van Eekelen, A., Feron, V. J., Til, H. P., and de Groot, A. P. 1972. Chronic (Two‑Year) Feeding Study in Rats With Radiation‑Pasteurized Chicken. Report No. R3773, Central Institute for Nutrition and Food Research (TNO), Zeist, The Netherlands.
deKnecht‑van Eekelen, A., van der Meulen, H. C., Til, H. P., and de Groot, A. P. 1971. Multi‑Generation Study in Rats With Radiation‑Pasteurized Chicken. Report No. R3622, Central Institute for Nutrition and Food Research (TNO), Zeist, The Netherlands.
Diehl, J. F. 1979a. Vitamin A in irradiated foods. Z. Lebensm. Unters. Forsch. 168:29–31.
Diehl, J. F. 1979b. Reduction of radiation‑induced vitamin losses by irradiation of foodstuffs at low temperature and by exclusion of atmospheric oxygen. Z. Lebensm. Unters. Forsch. 169:276–280.
Diehl, J. F. 1979c. Influence of irradiation conditions and storage on radiation‑induced vitamin E losses in foods. Chemie Mikrobiologie und Technologie der Lebensmittel 6:65–70.
Diehl, J. F. 1984. Food irradiation. Pp. 25–59. In S. Thorne (Ed.). Developments in Food Irradiation – 2. Applied Science Publishers, Essex, England.
Diehl, J. F., Adam, S., Delincee, H., and Jakubick, V. 1978. Radiolysis of carbohydrates and carbohydrate‑containing foodstuffs. J. Agric. Food Chem. 26(1):15–20.
Doguchi, M. 1969. Effects of gamma radiation on wheat gluten. Agr. Biol. Chem. 33:1769–1774.
Eklund, M. W. 1982. Significance of Clostridium botulinum in fishery products preserved short of sterilization. Food Technol. 36(12):107–112.
Elias, P. S., and Cohen, A. J. (Eds.). 1977. Radiation Chemistry of Major Food Components. Elsevier Biomedical Press, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Elias, P. S., and Cohen, A. J. (Eds.). 1983. Recent Advances in Food Irradiation. Elsevier Biomedical Press, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
El‑Zawahry, Y. A., and Rowley, D. B. 1979. Radiation resistance and injury of Yersinia enterocolitica. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 37:50–54.
FASEB. 1977. Evaluation of the Health Aspects of Certain Compounds Found in Irradiated Beef. Final Report. Life Sciences Research Office, Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, Bethesda, Md. Contract DAMD‑17‑76‑C‑6055.
FASEB. 1979a. Further Toxicological Considerations of Volatile Compounds. Supplement I.
FASEB. 1979b. Possible Radiolytic Compounds. Supplement II.
FDA. 1980. Recommendations for Evaluating the Safety of Irradiated Foods. Final Report. Irradiated Food Committee, Bureau of Foods, Food and Drug Administration, Washington, D.C.
FDA. 1981. Policy for irradiated foods. Advance notice of proposed procedure for the regulation of irradiated foods for human consumption. Federal Register 46(59):18992–18993 (March 27).
FDA. 1984. Irradiation in the production, processing and handling of food; Proposed rule. Federal Register 49(31):5713–5722 (February 14).
FDA. 1985a. Irradiation in the processing and handling of food; Final rule (Irradiation of dry and dehydrated enzymes. Docket No. 84F‑0316). Federal Register 50(111):24190–24191 (June 10).
FDA. 1985b. Irradiation in the processing and handling of food; Final rule (Irradiation of fresh pork to control Trichinella spiralis (Docket No. 84F‑0230)). Federal Register 50(140):29658–29659 (July 22).
FDA. 1986. Irradiation in the production, processing, and handling of food; Final rule. Federal Register 51(75):13375–13399 (April 18).
Firstenberg‑Eden, R., Rowley, D. B., and Shattuck, G. E. 1982. Factors affecting growth and toxin production by Clostridium botulinum Type E on irradiated (0.3 Mrad) chicken skin. J. Food Sci. 47:867–870.
Frumkin, M. L., Koval’skaya, L. R., and Gelfand, S. Y. 1973. Technological Principles in the Radiation Treatment of Food Products. Pischevaya Promyschlennost Publ., Moscow, USSR.
Gelfand, S. Y. 1970. Effect of packaging materials on the changes of the intramuscular lipids of culinary irradiated meat products. Proc. Sci. Technol. Conf. Util. Ionizing Radiation Natl. Economy. Issue 3:90–95. Prioks Book Printing Office, Tula, USSR.
George, K. P., Chaubey, R. C., Sundaram, K., and Gopal‑Ayengar, A. R. 1976. Frequency of polyploid cells in the bone marrow of rats fed irradiated wheat. Food Cosmet. Toxicol. 14:289–291.
Greenberg, R. A., Tomkin, R. B., Blade, B. O., Kittaka, R. S., and Anellis, A. 1966. Incidence of mesophilic Clostridium spores in raw pork, beef, and chicken in processing plants in the United States and Canada. Appl. Microbiol. 14:789–793.
Gutherz, L. S., and Fruin, J. T. 1981. Assessment of mutagenic activity in thermally processed, frozen, electron‑irradiated, and gamma‑irradiated beef using the Ames Salmonella/mammalian microsome mutagenicity assay. Letterman Army Institute of Research Report No. 70. Presidio of San Francisco, California.
Han Chi, Guo Shiping, Wang Maoqi, Lui Wenming, Cui Wenming, and Dai Yin. 1986. A feeding trial of irradiated diet in human volunteers. FAO/IAEA Seminar for Asia and the Pacific on the Practical Application of Food Irradiation. International Atomic Energy Agency and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, April 7–11, 1986, Shanghai, China. (In press)
Hart, L. G. 1985. Summary Minutes for the Peer Review of the Data from the Raltech Lifetime Feeding Study with Irradiated Chicken Meat in CD‑1 Mice by the National Toxicology Program Board of Scientific Counselors Technical Reports Review Subcommittee and Panel of Experts. March 28, 1985. Letter to W. G. Flamm, Food and Drug Administration, May 16, 1985. U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
Herbst, W. 1968. Unpredictable Health Risk by Food Irradiation. Verlagsgenossenschaft der Waerland‑Bewegung G.m.b.H., Mannheim, Germany.
Hobbs, G. 1976. Clostridium botulinum and its importance in fishery products. Adv. Food Res. 22:135–185.
Holsten, R. D., Sugii, M., and Steward, F. C. 1965. Direct and indirect effects of radiation on plant cells; their relation to growth and growth induction. Nature 208:850–856.
IAEA. 1981. Wholesomeness of the Process of Food Irradiation. Coordinated Research Programme. Final Report, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Isotope and Radiation Applications, Vienna, Austria. IAEA‑TECDOC‑256.
Ingram, M., and Farkas, J. 1977. Microbiology of foods pasteurised by ionizing radiation. Acta Alimentaria 6:123–185.
IPFFI. 1982. International Project in the Field of Food Irradiation. Food Irradiation Information No. 12. Federal Research Center for Nutrition, Karlsruhe, Federal Republic of Germany.
Israelson, E. L., Ronning, D. C., and Thomson, G. M. 1982. Final Report: Rabbit Teratology Study. Raltech Scientific Services, St. Louis, Mo. Available from National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va. PB84‑187046.
Ivanov, E., and Levina, A. I. 1981. Morphological changes in the testes of rats fed on products irradiated with γ‑rays. Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine 91(2):233–236. (Translated into English from Russian by Consultants Bureau, New York.)
Josephson, E. S. 1978. Evaluation of 29 Abstracts Concerning Possible Adverse Effects From Foods Preserved by Ionizing Radiation. Memorandum for GAO Team at Natick Studying Food Irradiation, March 16, 1978. (Personal communication.)
Josephson, E. S., Heiligman, F., Wadsworth, C. K., Howker, J. J., and Wierbicki, E. 1977. Low Dose (Food) Irradiation at Natick. Technical Report TR‑78‑003, Food Engineering Laboratory (FEL‑65). U.S. Army Natick Research and Development Command.
Josephson, E. S., and Merritt, C., Jr. (Eds.). 1972. Symposium on the Recent Advances in the Chemistry of Food Irradiation. Radiation Research Reviews 3(4):281–460.
Josephson, E. S., Thomas, M. H., and Calhoun, W. K. 1974. Effects of ionizing radiation upon food nutrients—A review and update. Proc. IV International Congress Food Sci. and Technol. 1:613–623.
Josephson, E. S., Thomas, M. H., and Calhoun, W. K. 1975. Effects of treatment of foods with ionizing radiation. Pp. 393–411. In R. S. Harris and E. Karmas (Eds.). Nutritional Evaluation of Food Processing. 2nd Edition. AVI Publishing Co., Westport, Conn.
Josephson, E. S., Thomas, M. H., and Calhoun, W. K. 1978. Nutritional aspects of food irradiation: An overview. J. Food Processing and Preservation 2:299–313.
Kamaldinova, Z. M. 1970. Effect of culinary pretreated gamma‑irradiated beef on the organism of rats. Voprosy Pitaniya 29(2):73–77.
Kamaldinova, Z. M., Shillinger, Yu. I., and Zaitsev, A. N. 1977. Investigation into the possible mutagenic activity of beef irradiated with gamma rays in the raw and fried state and its influence on the reproductive function of albino rats. Voprosy Pitaniya 36(2):53–59.
Kennedy, T. S. 1965. Studies on the nutritional value of foods treated with γ‑radiation. II. Effects on the protein in some animal feeds, egg and wheat. J. Sci. Food Agric. 16:433–437.
Kennedy, T. S., and Ley, F. J. 1971. Studies on the combined effect of gamma radiation and cooking on the nutritive value of fish. J. Sci. Food Agric. 22:146–148.
Kesavan, P. C. 1978. Indirect effects of radiation in relation to food preservation: Facts and fallacies. J. Nucl. Agric. Biol. 7:93–97.
Knapp, F. W., and Tappel, A. L. 1961. Comparison of the radiosensitivities of the fat‑soluble vitamins by gamma irradiation. J. Agric. Food Chem. 9:430–433.
Kraybill, H. F. 1960. The wholesomeness of irradiated foods. Pp. 308–314. In National Food Irradiation Research Program. Hearings before the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, Congress of the United States, January 14–15, 1960. Part I. U.S. Government Printing Office.
Kraybill, H. F. 1982. Effect of processing on nutritive value of food: Irradiation. Pp. 181–208. In M. Rechcigl, Jr. (Ed.). Handbook of Nutritive Value of Processed Food. Vol. I. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
Kung, H., Gaden, E. L., and King, C. G. 1953. Vitamins and enzymes in milk. Effect of gamma‑radiation on activity. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1:142–144.
Kuzdaz, C. D., Thomson, G., and Lusskin, R. M. 1980. Final Report: Application of the Ames Mutagenicity Test for the Assessment of Mutagenic Activity in Thermal Processed, Frozen, Electron Irradiated, and Gamma Irradiated Chicken. Raltech Scientific Services, St. Louis, Mo. NTIS PB84‑187053.
Lambert, J. D., and Maxcy, R. B. 1984. Effect of gamma radiation on Campylobacter jejuni. J. Food Sci. 49:665–667, 674.
Lang, K., and Bassler, K. H. 1966. Nutritional value of irradiated potatoes. Pp. 147–169. In Food Irradiation, Proceedings of the Symposium, Karlsruhe, June 6–10, 1966. IAEA STI/PUB/127, Vienna.
Leonova, T. A., and Sosedov, N. I. 1972. Action of γ‑irradiation on the amino acid composition of rice and buckwheat grains. Radiobiologiya 12:629.
Levina, A. I., and Ivanov, A. E. 1978. Pathomorphology of the kidneys in rats after prolonged ingestion of irradiated foods. Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine 85(2):230–232. (Translated by Consultants Bureau, New York.)
Levy, L. M., Bernstein, L. M., Francis, E., Harding, R. S., Krzywicki, H. J., McGary, V. E., Nuss, J., Sellars, J. H., and Shipman, M. E. 1957. An assessment of the possible effects to human beings of short‑term consumption of food sterilized with gamma rays. U.S. Army Medical Nutrition Laboratory Report 203, Fitzsimons Army Hospital, Denver, Colo.
Ley, F. J. 1972. The use of irradiation for the treatment of various animal feed products. Food Irradiation Information 1:8–22.
Ley, F. J. 1975. Radiation sterilization—An industrial process. Pp. 118–130. In O. F. Nygaard, H. I. Adler, and W. K. Sinclair (Eds.). Radiation Research: Biomedical, Chemical and Physical Perspectives. Proceedings of the Fifth International Congress of Radiation Research, Seattle, July 14–20, 1974. Academic Press, New York.
Ley, F. J., Bleby, J., Coates, M. E., and Patterson, J. S. 1969. Sterilization of laboratory animal diets using gamma radiation. Lab. Animals 3:221–254.
Liuzzo, J. A., Barone, W. B., and Novack, A. F. 1966. Stability of B‑vitamins in gulf oysters preserved by gamma radiation. Federation Proc. 25:722.
Ludwig, F., and Hopf, H. 1925. Experimental study on the effect of roentgen‑irradiation on the food. Strahlentherapie 20:342.
Maxcy, R. B. 1983. Significance of residual organisms in foods after substerilizing doses of gamma radiation: A review. J. Food Safety 5:203–211.
Maxcy, R. B., and Rowley, D. B. 1978. Radiation‑resistant vegetative bacteria in a proposed system of radappertization of meats. Pp. 347–359. In Food Preservation by Irradiation, Volume I. IAEA STI/PUB/470, Vienna.
McGown, E. L., Lewis, C. M., and Waring, P. P. 1979a. Investigation of possible antithiamin properties in irradiation sterilized beef. Letterman Army Institute of Research, Div. Nutr. Technol., Inst. Report No. 71. Presidio of San Francisco, Calif.
McGown, E. L., Lewis, C. M., and Waring, P. P. 1979b. Investigation of antithiamin properties of irradiation sterilized chicken. Letterman Army Institute of Research, Report No. 72. Presidio of San Francisco, Calif.
McGown, E. L., Lewis, C. M., Robles, A., Waring, P. P., Skola, J. H., Gildengorin, V. L., and Sauberlich, H. E. 1981. Investigation of possible antivitamin B‑6 properties in irradiation sterilized chicken. Letterman Army Institute of Research, Inst. Report No. 87. Presidio of San Francisco, Calif.
Meigh, D. F. 1964. Natural skin coating of the apple and its influence on scald in storage. I. Fatty acids and hydrocarbons. J. Sci. Food Agric. 15(7):436–443.
Merritt, C., Jr. 1966. Chemical changes induced by irradiation in meats and meat components. Pp. 197–210. In Food Irradiation, Proceedings of the Symposium, Karlsruhe, June 6–10, 1966. IAEA STI/PUB/127, Vienna.
Merritt, C., Jr. (Ed.). 1978. Symposium on Current Studies on the Chemistry of Food Irradiation. J. Agric. Food Chem. 26(1):1–35.
Merritt, C., Jr. 1984. Radiolysis Compounds in Bacon and Chicken (Also in Pork, Ham, and Beef). ERRC‑ARS Document No. 83. NTIS PB84‑187095.
Merritt, C., Jr., Angelini, P., and Graham, R. A. 1978. Effect of radiation parameters on the formation of radiolysis products in meat and meat substances. J. Agric. Food Chem. 26:29–35.
Merritt, C., Jr., and Taub, I. A. 1983. Commonality and predictability of radiolytic products in irradiated meats. Pp. 27–57. In P. S. Elias and A. J. Cohen (Eds.). Recent Advances in Food Irradiation. Elsevier Biomedical Press, Amsterdam.
Merritt, C., Jr., Vajdi, M., and Angelini, P. 1985. A quantitative comparison of the yields of radiolysis products in various meats and their relationship to precursors. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 62(4):708–713.
Merritt, C., Jr., Vajdi, M., Bazinet, M. L., and Angelini, P. 1983. A quantitative study of the pathways involved in the formation of radiolysis products in ethyl palmitate. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 60:1509–1516.
Metlitskii, L. V., Rogachev, V. N., and Krushchev, V. G. 1968. Radiation processing of food products. Status of the food irradiation program. Pp. 567–691. In Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Research, Development and Radiation of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, Congress of the United States, July 18 and 30, 1968. U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (English translation.)
Metta, V. C., and Johnson, B. C. 1959. Biological value of gamma‑irradiated corn protein and wheat gluten. J. Agric. Food Chem. 7:131–133.
Mitchell, J. H., Jr. 1957. Action of ionizing radiations on fats, oils, and related compounds. Pp. 119–125. In Radiation Preservation of Food. U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps, U.S. Government Printing Office.
Mittler, S. 1979. Failure of irradiated beef and ham to induce genetic aberrations in Drosophila. Int. J. Radiat. Biol. 35(6):583–588.
Moore, R. O. 1961. The Influence of Irradiated Foods on the Enzyme Systems Concerned with Digestion. Final Report. Dept. Agric. Biochem., Ohio State Univ. Research Found., Columbus, Ohio. Contract DA‑49‑007‑MD‑787.
Mossel, D. A. A. 1977. Health protection aspects of food irradiation at the pasteurisation level. Acta Alimentaria 6:253–262.
Murray, T. K. 1983. Nutritional aspects of food irradiation. Pp. 203–216. In P. S. Elias and A. J. Cohen (Eds.). Recent Advances in Food Irradiation. Elsevier Biomedical Press, Amsterdam.
Murthy, P. B. K. 1981a. SCE in monkeys fed irradiated wheat. Food Cosmet. Toxicol. 19:523.
Murthy, P. B. K. 1981b. Sister‑chromatid exchanges in mice given irradiated wheat. Toxicology 20:247–249.
Nair, K. K., and Brownell, L. E. 1965. The clearance of gamma‑irradiated wheat and the international importance of this act. Pp. 325–360. In Radiation Preservation of Foods. Proceedings of the International Conference, Boston, 1964. National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Publication 1273.
Narat, J. K. 1927. Effect of food with X‑rays upon mice. Radiology 8:41.
Nawar, W. W. 1972. Radiolytic changes in fats. Radiation Res. Rev. 3(4):327–334.
Nawar, W. W. 1983a. Radiolysis of nonaqueous components of foods. Pp. 75–124. In E. S. Josephson and M. S. Peterson (Eds.). Preservation of Food by Ionizing Radiation. Vol. II. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla.
Nawar, W. W. 1983b. Comparison of chemical consequences of heat and irradiation treatment of lipids. Pp. 115–127. In P. S. Elias and A. J. Cohen (Eds.). Recent Advances in Food Irradiation. Elsevier Biomedical Press.
Palumbo, S. A., Jenkins, R. K., Buchanan, R. L., and Thayer, D. W. 1986. Determination of irradiation D‑values for Aeromonas hydrophila. J. Food Protection 49(3):189–191.
Pape, G. 1973. Some observations regarding irradiated wheat. Pp. 311–338. In Radiation Preservation of Food. Proceedings of the Symposium, Bombay, Nov. 13–17, 1972. IAEA STI/PUB/317, Vienna.
Partmann, W. 1962. The effect of ionizing radiation on lipids. Pp. 75–96. In Report of the Brussels Meeting on the Wholesomeness of Irradiated Foods (With Exclusive Reference to the Evaluation of Nutritional Adequacy and Safety for Consumption). FAO, United Nations, Rome.
Philips, G. O. 1972. Effects of ionizing radiation on carbohydrate systems. Radiation Res. Rev. 3(4):285–304.
Plough, I. C., Sellars, J. H., McGary, V. E., Nuss, J., Baker, E. M., Harding, R. S., Taylor, R. L., and Weiser, O. L. 1957. An evaluation in human beings of the acceptability, digestibility, and toxicity of pork sterilized by gamma radiation and stored at room temperature. U.S. Army Medical Nutrition Laboratory Report No. 204, Fitzsimons Army Hospital, Denver, Colo.
Poling, E. C., Warner, W. D., Humburg, F. R., Reber, E. F., Urbain, W. M., and Rice, E. E. 1955. Growth, reproduction, survival, and histopathology of rats fed beef irradiated with electrons. Food Research 20:193–214.
Priyadarshini, E., and Tulpule, P. G. 1976. Aflatoxin production on irradiated foods. Food Cosmet. Toxicol. 14:293–295.
Priyadarshini, E., and Tulpule, P. G. 1979. Effect of graded doses of gamma‑irradiation on aflatoxin production by Aspergillus parasiticus in wheat. Food Cosmet. Toxicol. 17:505–507.
Raica, N., Jr. 1963. P. 42. In Proceedings of Joint Meeting – U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Command, Surgeon General’s Advisory Committee on Nutrition, and Surgeon General’s Contractors on Wholesomeness of Irradiated Foods, March 1, 1963. (Reprinted in Review of the Army Food Irradiation Program, Hearings before the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, May 13, 1963. U.S. GPO.)
Raica, N., Jr. 1965. Data on wholesomeness. A progress report. Pp. 185–190. In Radiation Preservation of Foods. National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Publication 1273.
Raica, N., Jr., and Howie, D. L. 1966. Review of the United States Army Wholesomeness of Irradiated Food Program (1955–1966). Pp. 119–135. In Food Irradiation. IAEA STI/PUB/127, Vienna.
Raica, N., Jr., Scott, J., and Nielson, W. 1972. The nutritional quality of irradiated foods. Rad. Res. Reviews 3(4):447–457.
Rao, K. N., Moorthy, P. N., and Kishore, K. 1978. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre Report. Trombay, Bombay, India.
Read, M. S., Kraybill, H. F., Worth, W. S., Thompson, S. W., Jr., Isaac, G. J., and Witt, N. F. 1961. Successive‑generation rat feeding studies with a composite diet of gamma‑irradiated foods. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 3:153–173.
Reber, E. F., Raheja, K., and Davis, D. 1965. Wholesomeness of irradiated foods—An annotated bibliography. Pp. 749–819. In Radiation Processing of Foods. Hearings before the Subcommittee on Research, Development, and Radiation, Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, June 9–10, 1965.
Reddi, O. S., Reddy, P. P., Ebenezer, D. N., and Naidu, N. V. 1977. Lack of genetic and cytogenetic effects in mice fed on irradiated wheat. Int. J. Radiat. Biol. 31:589–601.
Reichelt, D., Renner, H. W., and Diehl, J. F. 1972. Long‑term animal feeding study for testing the wholesomeness of an irradiated diet with a high content of free radicals. Inst. Strahlentechnol. Bundesforschungsanstalt für Lebensmittelfrischhaltung. Report BFL‑3/1972. Karlsruhe, Germany.
Renner, H. W., Grünewald, T., and Ehrenberg‑Kieckenbusch, W. 1973. Mutagenicity testing of irradiated food using the dominant lethal test. Humangenetik 18(2):155–164.
Renner, H. W., and Reichelt, D. 1973. Wholesomeness of high concentrations of free radicals in irradiated foods. Zentralbl. Vet. Med., Series B, 20(8):648–660.
Richardson, L. R. 1955. A Long Range Investigation of the Nutritional Properties of Irradiated Food. Progress Report III, Sept. 1, 1954–July 1, 1955. Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, College Station, Texas. Contract DA 49‑007‑MD‑582.
Richardson, L. R. 1960. Relative Destruction of Vitamin K and B6 by Gamma Radiations (2.79 × 10⁶ and 5.58 × 10⁶ rad) and Conventional Heat Treatment. Final Report, August 1960. Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, College Station, Texas. Contract DA49‑007‑MD‑582.
Richardson, L. R., Woodworth, P., and Coleman, S. 1956. Effect of ionizing radiations on vitamin K. Federation Proc. 15:924–926.
Ronning, D. C., Black, C. M., Christopher, J. P., Cuca, G. C., Dahlgren, R. R., Israelson, E. L., Miranti, R. A., Monti, K. L., Reutzel, L. F., and Troup, C. M. 1984. A chronic toxicity, oncogenicity, and multigeneration reproductive study using CD‑1 mice to evaluate frozen, thermally sterilized, cobalt‑60 irradiated, and 10 MeV electron irradiated chicken meat. ERRC‑ARS Document Nos. 41–54. NTIS PB84‑187012.
Saint‑Lèbe, L., Brule, G., Piot, M., and Graff, L. 1973. Étude toxicologique du mélange de neuf composés volatils produits par l’irradiation du polyglucose. Annales de la Nutrition et de l’Alimentation 27:455–466.
Schreiber, H. A., and Nasset, E. S. 1959. The digestion of irradiated lard. J. Nutrition 68:115–124.
Schoen, R. T., and Hiller, A. 1971. Use of irradiation for sterilizing animal diets. Lab. Animals 5:193–199.
Seifried, H. E., Seifried, R. M., Clarke, J. J., and Huff, J. E. 1983. An Independent Review of the Mouse Data in the Raltech Rat and Mouse Lifetime Feeding Study of Chicken Meat Sterilized by Ionizing Radiation. Prepared for the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
Sharma, A., Padwal‑Desai, S. R., Borkar, P. N., and Nadkarni, G. B. 1978. Effect of gamma irradiation on the antifungal properties of some plant materials. J. Food Sci. 43:1037–1039.
Sharma, A., Padwal‑Desai, S. R., and Nadkarni, G. B. 1979. Influence of gamma irradiation on the antifungal activity of spices. J. Food Sci. 44:1347–1349.
Sharma, A., Padwal‑Desai, S. R., Borkar, P. N., and Nadkarni, G. B. 1981. Effect of processing on the antifungal properties of certain Indian spices. J. Food Sci. 46:1581–1584.
Sheffner, A. L., and Spector, H. 1957. The effect of gamma irradiation on certain vitamins in foods. Food Research 22:68–75.
Shillinger, Y. I., and Osipova, N. A. 1970. Hygienic evaluation of irradiated foods. Voprosy Pitaniya 29(4):66–68.
Simic, M. G. 1983. Generation of free radicals in food systems by ionizing radiation. Pp. 1–20. In E. S. Josephson and M. S. Peterson (Eds.). Preservation of Food by Ionizing Radiation. Vol. II. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
Somogyi, J. C. 1973. Antivitamins and their significance in nutrition. World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics 17:1–46.
Sullivan, R., Parker, W., Wierbicki, E., Angelini, P., and Merritt, C., Jr. 1979. The effects of feeding irradiated chicken on the induction of sex‑linked recessive lethal mutations in Drosophila melanogaster. Mutation Research 63:241–247.
Surgeon General. 1965. Statement before the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, March 3, 1965. U.S. Government Printing Office.
Taub, I. A. 1981. Predictive chemical studies of radiolytic products in foods. J. Agric. Food Chem. 29:312–319.
Taub, I. A. 1983. Predictability of radiolytic products in food. Pp. 59–74. In P. S. Elias and A. J. Cohen (Eds.). Recent Advances in Food Irradiation. Elsevier Biomedical Press.
Taub, I. A. 1984. Mechanisms of formation of radiolytic products in meat. J. Agric. Food Chem. 32:671–676.
Taub, I. A., Merritt, C., Jr., and Angelini, P. 1976. Mechanisms of formation of radiolytic products in lipids: A review. Radiation Res. Rev. 6(1):1–39.
Taub, I. A., Merritt, C., Jr., and Angelini, P. 1979. Radiolytic products in lipids: Quantitative studies of mechanism. Radiation Res. 77:549–565.
Taub, I. A., Merritt, C., Jr., and Angelini, P. 1980. Radiation chemistry of meat lipids: Pathways and mechanisms. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 57:12–18.
Tarkowski, J., Podolak, G., and Metera, A. 1984. Radiosensitivity of Aeromonas hydrophila. Acta Alimentaria 13:113–121.
Temcharoen, P., and Thilly, W. G. 1982. Gamma radiation inactivation of aflatoxin B1. Food Chem. Toxicol. 20:567–572.
Tesh, J. M., de Groot, A. P., et al. 1977. Genetic and cytogenetic studies on wheat irradiated with gamma rays. Toxicology 8:1–13.
Thomas, M. H. 1986. Nutritional aspects of food irradiation. Unpublished review, provided to CAST.
Thomas, M. H., and Josephson, E. S. 1970. Effects of ionizing radiation on thiamine in foods. J. Food Sci. 35:261–263.
Thomas, M. H., Tappel, A. L., and Collins, M. 1981. Effects of gamma and electron radiation on thiamine retention in pork. J. Food Sci. 46:787–790.
Thayer, D. W., and Wierbicki, E. 1985. Evaluation of the safety of irradiated chicken based on data submitted to the FDA. USDA, Washington, D.C.
Til, H. P., de Groot, A. P., et al. 1971. Long‑term toxicity study in dogs fed radiation‑pasteurized chicken. Central Institute for Nutrition and Food Research (TNO), Zeist, The Netherlands.
Truhaut, R., and Saint‑Lèbe, L. 1978. Toxicity studies of radiolytic products formed in irradiated starch. Food Chem. Toxicol. 16:133–137.
Tsai, L. S., Ingram, M., and Farkas, J. 1984. Effect of gamma irradiation on Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin production. J. Food Protect. 47:679–683.
Urbain, W. M. (multiple years). Various reports on radiolytic products and food irradiation. U.S. Army Natick Research and Development Command.
Udes, R. B., Murthy, M. R., and Phillips, B. 1971. Nutritional evaluation of irradiated diets for germ‑free and non‑germ‑free rats. J. Nutrition 101:1347–1354.
Vakil, U. K., Sreenivasan, A., and Narayanarao, M. 1973. Effect of gamma irradiation on wheat proteins. J. Agric. Food Chem. 21:245–248.
van Logten, M. J., Til, H. P., et al. 1978. Feeding study with radiation‑sterilized animal feed in rats. Central Institute for Nutrition and Food Research (TNO), Zeist, The Netherlands.
van Logten, M. J., Til, H. P., et al. 1980. Toxicity of radiation‑sterilized feed in swine. Central Institute for Nutrition and Food Research (TNO), Zeist, The Netherlands.
van Logten, M. J., Til, H. P., et al. 1983. Wholesomeness study on radiation‑sterilized ham in rats. Central Institute for Nutrition and Food Research (TNO), Zeist, The Netherlands.
Vaver, V. A., Bergelson, L. D., et al. 1964. Composition of plant neutral lipids. Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 157:123–125.
Vijayalaxmi. 1975. Frequency of polyploid cells in monkeys fed irradiated wheat. Food Cosmet. Toxicol. 13:575–578.
Vijayalaxmi. 1978. Dominant lethal mutations in male rats fed irradiated wheat. Mutation Research 57:381–386.
WHO. 1965. Wholesomeness of Irradiated Food. Report of the Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Expert Committee. World Health Organization Technical Report Series No. 316.
WHO. 1976. Wholesomeness of Irradiated Food. Report of the Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Expert Committee, Geneva.
WHO. 1977. Wholesomeness of Irradiated Food with Particular Reference to Wheat, Potatoes, and Onions. World Health Organization, Geneva.
WHO. 1981a. Wholesomeness of Irradiated Food. Technical Report Series No. 659. World Health Organization, Geneva.
WHO. 1981b. Report of Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Expert Committee on Wholesomeness of Irradiated Food. Geneva, Switzerland.
Wierbicki, E. 1984. Wholesomeness Studies of Irradiated Foods. Eastern Regional Research Center, USDA‑ARS, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Wierbicki, E. 1985. Review of research on wholesomeness of irradiated chicken and other foods. Presented to the FDA, Washington, D.C.
Zaitsev, A. N., and Maganova, L. A. 1981. Hygiene of irradiated foods. Voprosy Pitaniya 40(2):62–65.
Zaitsev, A. N., Osipova, N. A. 1981. Studies on the safety of irradiated plant foods. Voprosy Pitaniya 40(3):33–37.
Zaitsev, A. N., Osipova, N. A., and others. 1975. Studies on toxicological effects of irradiated meat products. Voprosy Pitaniya 34:54–57.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 1986 Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
License Terms for CC Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0:
License URL: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/
License Terms Statement:
You are free to:
- Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
- Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material
Under the following conditions:
- Attribution — you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made
- NonCommercial — you may not use the material for commercial purposes
No additional restrictions — you may not apply legal terms or technological measures that legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits.
