Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST)
CAST Publications is a repository of peer-reviewed reports on agricultural science and technology. These standalone publications serve policymakers, researchers, and stakeholders with evidence-based analysis on critical agricultural issues.
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Convergence of Agriculture and Energy: II. Producing Cellulosic Biomass for Biofuels
The commentary addresses the growing need for renewable energy sources as global petroleum supplies decline and energy demand rises. It emphasizes the transition from grain-based ethanol to cellulosic biomass as a feedstock for biofuel production. The paper outlines challenges in developing sustainable and profitable biomass production systems, including agronomic practices, crop development, feedstock logistics, and policy frameworks. It calls for significant investments in research, development, and education to overcome technical and economic barriers. The ultimate goal is to create a coordinated national strategy that ensures efficient biomass production, harvest, and conversion to meet U.S. energy targets while maintaining environmental sustainability.
Copyright (c) 2026 Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Food Waste Across the Supply Chain: A U.S. Perspective on a Global Problem
This edited volume examines the scale, causes, and consequences of food loss and waste across the U.S. supply chain, and presents strategies and case studies for reduction, recovery, and recycling. Contributions cover global trends and environmental footprints, consumer behavior, industry practices, food rescue and composting, animal feed pathways, and policy and legal frameworks—concluding with recommendations to support the national goal of a 50% reduction in food waste by 2030.
Gene Flow in Alfalfa: Biology, Mitigation, and Potential Impact on Production
This publication addresses gene flow in alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) and its implications for coexistence among genetically engineered (GE), conventional, and organic production systems. It explains biological and agronomic factors influencing gene movement via pollen and seed, and outlines mitigation strategies to minimize adventitious presence (AP) of GE traits in sensitive markets. Key findings indicate that gene flow in hay production is extremely low due to frequent harvests before seed set, while seed production poses higher potential risk but can be effectively managed through isolation distances, pollinator control, and best management practices. The report emphasizes science-based coexistence strategies, including certified seed use, crop rotation, and removal of feral plants, to maintain genetic purity and market access.
Copyright (c) 2019 Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Impact of the Precautionary Principle on the Nutrition of Current and Future Generations
The precautionary principle (PP) has emerged as one of the most influential yet controversial concepts in environmental and food policy over the past two decades. Initially intended to promote prudent risk management under scientific uncertainty, its application has often been ambiguous, arbitrary, and biased against innovation. This paper reviews the historical development of the PP, its interpretations across jurisdictions, and its implications for agricultural technologies. Through case studies on pesticides, genetically modified (GM) foods, and food irradiation, the authors demonstrate that strict or poorly defined precautionary measures can hinder technological progress, reduce food security, and exacerbate global hunger. While precaution is essential in risk governance, the PP in its current form fails to provide a coherent, rational framework for decision-making. The authors argue for a balanced approach—“not too little, not too much”—to ensure safety without stifling innovation critical for feeding a projected global population of 9.1 billion by 2050. Ultimately, the PP’s legacy should be fostering deliberate, evidence-based precaution rather than imposing rigid barriers that compromise health, trade, and sustainability.
FIFRA and the Endangered Species Act: Finding a Balance between Agricultural Efficiency, Environmental Sustainability, and Regulatory Stability
This paper explores the complex intersection between the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and the Endangered Species Act (ESA), focusing on the challenges of harmonizing pesticide regulation with species protection mandates. It reviews the historical evolution of both statutes, the repeated cycles of regulatory attempts, and the persistent difficulties in implementing effective consultation processes. The authors highlight the contrasting frameworks of FIFRA’s risk-benefit balancing and ESA’s species-centric approach, which have led to logistical overload, litigation, and regulatory uncertainty. Recent initiatives by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), including the ESA Workplan Update and pilot projects, aim to improve compliance and integrate better science and mapping techniques. However, the paper questions whether these efforts will resolve longstanding conflicts or perpetuate the cycle of stalled implementation. Ultimately, it calls for innovative, collaborative solutions to achieve agricultural efficiency, environmental sustainability, and regulatory stability.
A Legal Discussion of the FIFRA/ESA Consultation Process Over Time
This paper examines the intersection of the Endangered Species Act (ESA) and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) as administered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). It provides an overview of the statutory obligations under both laws, reviews EPA’s historical efforts to comply with ESA requirements during pesticide regulation, and analyzes recent policy developments aimed at improving compliance. The discussion includes past consultation strategies, litigation trends, and the agency’s current proposals, such as early mitigation measures, the Draft Herbicide Strategy, and the Vulnerable Species Pilot Program. The paper concludes by highlighting unresolved legal and practical questions regarding the effectiveness and enforceability of these new approaches.
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)
Improving the FIFRA/ESA Process by Addressing Key Obstacles and Incorporating Better Data and Tools
This commentary examines the challenges and limitations of the current consultation process between the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and the Endangered Species Act (ESA) in the United States. The process, which requires the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to register pesticides to comply with ESA mandates, has become increasingly complex due to overlapping species ranges, conservative risk-assessment methodologies, and resource constraints. The authors identify three major obstacles: insufficient resources, excessive litigation, and conflicting objectives between FIFRA and ESA. They argue that current screening-level assessments are overly conservative, leading to inefficiencies and potentially unnecessary mitigation measures. The paper advocates integrating higher-tier data, advanced modeling, and stakeholder engagement to improve ecological risk assessments (ERAs). Recommendations include adopting tiered frameworks, prioritizing species based on actual threats, leveraging probabilistic geospatial tools, and considering broader anthropogenic stressors beyond pesticides. Ultimately, the authors call for a science-driven, transparent, and collaborative approach to streamline the FIFRA/ESA process, enhance protection for listed species, and support agricultural productivity.
Developing and Adopting Economically Effective Pesticide Mitigation Strategies: Critical to the Survival of Agriculture and Endangered Species
This paper examines the challenges and opportunities associated with integrating pesticide mitigation strategies into regulatory frameworks under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) while maintaining agricultural productivity. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has proposed mitigation measures to reduce pesticide exposure to ESA-listed species, primarily through spray-drift buffers and runoff-reduction practices. However, these measures often lack flexibility and scientific specificity, creating economic and operational burdens for growers. The paper emphasizes the need for transparent, science-based, and stakeholder-driven approaches that incorporate existing best management practices (BMPs) and conservation programs. It advocates for measurable outcomes to ensure that mitigation efforts are both effective and necessary, highlighting the importance of collaboration among regulators, industry, and farmers to achieve the dual goals of species protection and agricultural sustainability.
FIFRA, ESA and Pesticide Consultation: Identifying and Overcoming the Complexities from a Growers Perspective
This commentary examines why consultations under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) have been so difficult to align with pesticide actions under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), and proposes grower‑oriented ways to make protections both scientifically credible and practically implementable. The authors outline six interlocking challenges identified by EPA—including workload and staffing constraints, process misalignment, broad registrations affecting many species, methodological/data gaps, and the need for stronger interagency relationships—alongside the National Research Council’s recommendations on harmonized methods, probabilistic risk assessment, and the incorporation of stakeholder data. The paper details growers’ concerns about the accuracy of species and habitat mapping, access to and weighting of pesticide use data, conservative surrogate‑species toxicity assumptions, the real‑world feasibility of mitigation measures (especially for specialty crops and leased land), heavy reliance on models that may not be sufficiently validated for all use scenarios, and communication/usability issues with EPA’s Bulletins Live! Two (BLT). Case examples compare model predictions to field monitoring (e.g., atrazine in Florida; chlorpyrifos and malathion in the Pacific Northwest), highlighting where screening models may overpredict exposure and where tiered, refined approaches substantially improve accuracy. The commentary closes by urging EPA and partner agencies to ground decisions in realistic use scenarios, invest in validated exposure modeling (including air‑blast drift Tier III tools and drift‑reduction technologies), refine geospatial targeting of mitigations, and ensure affected producers have a seat at the table—eschewing one‑size‑fits‑all rules in favor of practicable, crop‑specific solutions.
State Regulatory Agencies as Conduit for Informing Local Conditions in Federal Pesticide Processes
This paper examines the intersection of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and the Endangered Species Act (ESA), focusing on the role of State Lead Agencies (SLAs) in implementing pesticide programs that comply with ESA requirements. It outlines the historical context of FIFRA and ESA integration, including the development of the Endangered Species Protection Program (ESPP) and the EPA’s ESA Workplan. The discussion emphasizes the importance of early SLA engagement in federal pesticide processes to ensure practical, enforceable mitigation measures for protecting listed species and critical habitats. Recommendations include improving communication, training, and enforcement strategies, as well as forming collaborative workgroups to address emerging compliance challenges. The paper concludes that SLAs are uniquely positioned to serve as conduits for local conditions and end-user perspectives, which are essential for successful implementation of ESA-related pesticide measures.
Endangered Species Protection Program (ESPP)
Pesticide Certification and Training (C&T)
Agricultural Science and Pest Management
Public Administration and Cooperative Governance
Copyright (c) 2024 Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
RNA Interference in Agriculture: Methods, Applications, and Governance
RNA interference (RNAi) is a naturally occurring gene-silencing mechanism conserved across eukaryotes. It works by degrading target messenger RNA (mRNA), and has historically served as a research tool for studying gene function. Over the past two decades, RNAi has been explored for agricultural applications, including managing insect pests and pathogens, improving crop traits, and enhancing food quality. RNAi-based crop protection is attractive due to its high specificity, which minimizes unintended effects on non-target organisms and improves safety profiles. This paper explains RNAi mechanisms, current agricultural applications, regulatory perspectives on RNAi-based pesticides, and challenges for commercialization. It aims to inform regulatory agencies, policymakers, industry stakeholders, and the public for better decision-making regarding RNAi technologies in agriculture.
Nanotechnology (for RNA delivery systems)
Applications, Benefits, and Challenges of Genome Edited Crops
The tools of genome editing were described more than a decade ago as promising ways to accelerate crop improvement, as well as for applications in human and animal health. Now, a decade later, we are seeing applications of genome editing across a range of crops and trait combinations that will benefit producers and consumers. Countries around the world are actively updating regulatory frameworks to adequately govern this new technology. In this paper, we describe recent advances in genome editing tools, review select applications underway, consider the benefits of the technology, and offer a perspective on significant challenges to the successful use of genome editing. Given an enabling policy environment, genome editing will be an important tool for creating a competitive bioeconomy while addressing major challenges in agriculture and for consumers. We offer five recommendations to ensure genome editing in agriculture benefits society.
Environmental Science and Sustainability
Social Science (Consumer Behavior and Public Perception)
Preventing the Next Plant Invasion: Opportunities and Challenges
Global trade and human activities have accelerated the introduction of non-native plant species, leading to significant ecological and economic impacts worldwide. Invasive plants are major drivers of biodiversity loss and ecosystem disruption, with projected increases in establishment due to climate change and habitat alteration. This paper explores the invasion process, pathways of introduction, and the role of risk assessment in preventing future invasions. It reviews qualitative, semi-quantitative, and quantitative risk assessment approaches, their applications in regulatory and non-regulatory contexts, and associated tools used in the United States and internationally. The paper also addresses barriers to implementation, the influence of climate change, and the need for proactive strategies such as horizon scanning and cultivar evaluation. Recommendations emphasize improving coordination, standardization, and integration of climate projections into risk assessments to enhance prevention and early detection efforts.
FIFRA, ESA, and Pesticide Consultation: Understanding and Addressing the Complexities
The intersection of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and the Endangered Species Act (ESA) presents one of the most complex regulatory challenges in U.S. agriculture. This paper explores the historical, legal, scientific, and practical dimensions of pesticide registration and endangered species protection. FIFRA requires EPA to balance pesticide benefits against risks to human health and the environment, while ESA mandates absolute protection of listed species without risk-benefit considerations. These differing statutory objectives have led to decades of procedural inefficiencies, litigation, and regulatory uncertainty. The paper reviews the evolution of consultation processes, including the ESA Workplan, Vulnerable Species Pilot Program, and Herbicide Strategy, and evaluates their scientific and economic implications. Key obstacles include resource limitations, litigation-driven timelines, and lack of harmonization between FIFRA’s national risk assessments and ESA’s species-specific evaluations. Recommendations emphasize integrating higher-tier science, improving species mapping, leveraging conservation programs, and fostering stakeholder collaboration to develop practical, science-based mitigation strategies that protect endangered species while sustaining agricultural productivity.
Public Administration and Stakeholder Engagement
Impacts of Soil Health Practices on Hydrologic Processes
Soil health, defined as the continued capacity of soil to function as a vital living ecosystem, plays a critical role in agricultural productivity, water quality, and climate resilience. This paper synthesizes current research on the impacts of soil health practices—such as reduced tillage, cover cropping, and residue management—on hydrologic processes within agricultural and urban systems. These practices influence water infiltration, storage, and movement through the soil-water-atmosphere continuum, reducing runoff, erosion, and surface water contamination while potentially moderating flood risks. Enhanced soil organic matter (SOM) and aggregate stability improve water holding capacity and infiltration, contributing to drought resilience and crop productivity. However, effects on groundwater recharge remain uncertain due to limited long-term data. The paper also explores the interplay between soil health and climate change, highlighting how improved soil management can mitigate adverse hydrologic impacts of extreme weather events. Policy implications emphasize adaptive governance and integration of farmer-led and indigenous practices to scale soil health adoption. Overall, soil health practices offer significant potential to enhance ecosystem services, water quality, and societal resilience in the face of climate variability.
Potential for U.S. Agriculture to Be Greenhouse Gas Negative
This report explores the potential for U.S. agriculture to achieve greenhouse gas (GHG) neutrality or become GHG-negative by integrating current and emerging practices across crop and livestock systems. Agriculture contributes approximately 10% of total U.S. GHG emissions, primarily through carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. The analysis identifies five major opportunity areas: soil carbon management, nitrogen fertilizer management, animal production and manure handling, crop production efficiency, and on-farm energy use. Adoption of regenerative practices—such as reduced tillage, cover cropping, precision nutrient management, and improved feed systems—combined with renewable energy technologies could reduce emissions by 80–90% under medium adoption scenarios and achieve net-negative emissions with aggressive implementation. The report emphasizes the need for on-farm demonstrations, technical support, and policy incentives to overcome economic and technological barriers. Achieving GHG-negative agriculture would not only mitigate climate impacts but also enhance soil health, water retention, and production resilience, positioning U.S. agriculture as a global model for sustainable food systems.
AI in Agriculture: Opportunities, Challenges, and Recommendations
Artificial intelligence (AI) is rapidly transforming agriculture by enabling data-driven decision-making, automation, and predictive analytics across the food and agricultural system. Advances in machine learning, computer vision, robotics, and sensor technologies have expanded the ability of producers, researchers, and agribusinesses to monitor crops and livestock, optimize inputs, and respond to environmental variability with unprecedented precision. This report examines the current and emerging applications of AI in agriculture, including crop and livestock monitoring, precision management, yield prediction, disease and pest detection, automation, and supply chain optimization. It explores the data sources, algorithms, and digital infrastructure that underpin AI-driven systems, as well as the role of AI in enhancing sustainability, productivity, and resilience under climate and resource constraints. The report also addresses key challenges associated with AI adoption in agriculture, including data quality and availability, model transparency, workforce readiness, cybersecurity, equity, and ethical considerations. By synthesizing recent research and real-world applications, this report provides an overview of how artificial intelligence can support more efficient, sustainable, and resilient agricultural systems, while highlighting research, policy, and extension needs critical for responsible and effective implementation.
Copyright (c) 2025 Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Water scarcity, climate variability, and increasing competition for water resources pose significant challenges to global food production. Irrigation remains a critical tool for stabilizing and enhancing agricultural productivity, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions, but must be managed more efficiently to meet future food demands with limited water supplies. Precision irrigation integrates site-specific water application, advanced sensing technologies, decision support systems, and automation to apply the right amount of water at the right time and place. This report examines the principles, technologies, and applications of precision irrigation across gravity, sprinkler, and microirrigation systems. It reviews variable rate irrigation, soil- and plant-based sensing, evapotranspiration monitoring, irrigation scheduling tools, and complementary technologies such as fertigation and data-driven decision support systems. The report also evaluates the agronomic, environmental, and economic benefits of precision irrigation, as well as current adoption levels and barriers to wider implementation. By synthesizing recent research and practical experiences, this report highlights how precision irrigation can improve water productivity, enhance crop performance, and increase resilience to climate change. It concludes with an assessment of future research, extension, and education needs required to accelerate adoption and maximize the benefits of precision irrigation in modern agriculture.
Animal and Plant Sourced Proteins as Part of a Balanced Human Diet
This paper examines the role of animal- and plant-sourced proteins in achieving a balanced human diet, emphasizing the importance of amino acid (AA) composition and digestibility rather than protein quantity alone. It reviews dietary requirements for essential and nonessential AAs across life stages and compares the nutritional quality of common protein sources, including cereals, legumes, nuts, seeds, meat, dairy, eggs, and emerging alternatives such as insects, algae, and cultured proteins. The discussion highlights complementary protein strategies for vegetarians and vegans, global disparities in protein supply, and future demand projections driven by population growth and evolving dietary preferences. Environmental impacts of protein production—such as nitrogen emissions, greenhouse gas contributions, and land use—are analyzed alongside sustainability considerations. The paper concludes that a balanced mix of plant and animal proteins, supported by sustainable practices and innovative sources, is essential for meeting nutritional needs while minimizing ecological footprints.
Environmental Science / Sustainability Studies